What are ‘Canons’?
Canons are the stages you work through when preparing and giving a speech.
What is ‘rhetoric’?
Rhetoric is the art of persuasive speaking. It concerns topics that have arguments for and against a motion. There is no right or wrong answer. The speaker endeavours to offer the most convincing arguments in support of their stance.
What are the three ‘persuasive appeals’?
The speaker will use three persuasive appeals: Ethos, Logos and Pathos.
Ethos is used to convince the audience not only of his credibility to speak on the topic but also to show that he understands their problem and shares their concerns.
Logos (not logic) are the words the speaker uses to influence the audience through varied forms of reasoning.
Pathos are the words and sounds, rhythm and rhyme, that the speaker uses to stir the emotions of the audience.
What are the 5 Canons of Rhetoric?
There are 5 canons of rhetoric. These are the stages you should work through when preparing a speech:
1) Invention 2) Arrangement 3) Style 4) Memory 5) Delivery
Invention: gathering facts, statistics, examples, stories that relate to your topic. Then selecting the material that supports your stance.
Arrangement: arranging the selected material in a logical and memorable order.
Style: selecting words that best express the speaker’s argument and are most likely to influence the audience. This is where figures of speech are used in order to provide rhyme, rhythm and retention.
Memory: rehearsing and refining the speech in order to become familiar with the major points.
Delivery: standing before an audience and presenting the speech.
The 5 Canons of Rhetoric are attributed to Cicero and have stood the test of time as being and effective framework for creating and giving a speech.
1 What do you mean by INVENTION?
Before you start preparing a speech, many things have already been decided.
The topic for the speech has already been decided. The motion for debate has already been decided. One speaker will support the motion, and another speaker will oppose it.
Each speaker will research arguments to support their stance. They will also become aware of arguments that do not support their stance and may posit counter-arguments.
The speaker will be conscious of many factors while they do their research. These are the three ‘persuasive appeals’ of Ethos, Logos and Pathos.
Ethos
The speaker’s objective is to sway the audience and entice them to agree with his stance. One way to achieve this objective is to get the audience to like him. Aristotle spoke of ‘Ethos’: where the speaker convinces the audience that he has the wisdom to speak on the topic; where the speaker understands them and wants to help them; where the speaker and the audience have a common goal.
Logos
Knowing what to say to this particular audience is also important. This involves making an appeal to the audience’s mind. Aristotle spoke of ‘Logos’ – convincing the audience that the speaker’s stance is the best option by using genuine and questionable forms of reasoning. ‘Logos’ is not logic. Logos is a form of argument. It can use universal truths, shared wisdom or common sayings as proof. It mixes premises to generate a seemingly valid argument. Aristotle called these ‘enthymemes’ which are effective ways to make a statement sound plausible. Even the use of opposites, when said with conviction, can sound true. Logos is not absolute truth. Logos deals with the ‘more’ probable and the ‘more’ certain.
Pathos
A major part of rhetoric is to sway the audience’s emotions. A knowledge of what excites or angers this audience can generate arguments that support the speaker’s stance. An appeal to the emotions is more effective than a string of facts and statistics. Likewise, the emotions are connected to memory which makes the speech more enduring. In rhetoric, any type of appeal to the mind or emotion is legitimate.
The Investigation is intended to get a deeper understanding of the audience and their mindset. Their age, sayings and proverbs, figures of speech, tropes, common interests - these are all part of the research. The speaker knows that he can better influence an audience when he speaks words and phrases that are familiar to them.
2 What do you mean by Arrangement?
Arrangement is the organization of the findings from the Invention stage. The aim is to create a speech that moves smoothly from beginning to end. It should be easy for the audience to follow. It uses every technique to persuade the audience that the speaker’s argument is the most convincing.
While there are many ways to organize a speech, Cicero took the findings from the Invention stage and grouped them under the following headings:
A) EXORDIUM
The introduction establishes the speaker as competent, eager to help the audience and show that they both shared a common interest. (Ethos)
The purpose is to put the audience in a receptive and an attentive frame of mind. The speaker makes it clear a) what he will be discussing and b) why the audience should listen to him. To do this the speaker will flatter the audience, humble himself and point forward to what he is going to say.
B) NARRATION
The next part of the speech sets out the points at issue, and the area of argument. The facts of the case are identified as far as possible.
Narration informs the audience of the who, what, when, and where of the case. It should be brief, clear, and plausible. The speaker frames the argument in terms that benefit his position. The argument is simplified and becomes a choice between solution A or Solution B.
C) DIVISION
At this point, the speaker establishes the points that he and the opponent agree about and disagree about.
The speaker summarizes the points where both speaker and opponent agree.
Then the speaker sets out the points that are at issue. To win the audience’s goodwill, the speaker will allege that he understands the opponent’s point of view
D) PROOF
The speaker now presents the arguments that support his case. (Logos)
There is continual emphasis on the probable and the possible. Proof may rely upon analogy and false premises. Commonly accepted sayings and proverbs can be used to support and argument. Any and every possible evidence is introduced to confirm the speaker’s argument.
E) REFUTATION
The speaker takes the opportunity to crush the opponent’s argument. (Logos)
The aim is not necessarily to knock down the opponent’s case but to misrepresent it in such a way that is easier to attack. The speaker can invent situations which ridicule the opponent’s case or discredit elements of their argument to smear their reputation.
F) PERORATION
The speech concludes with a summary of what has been said. The speaker then reiterates the strongest points using emotive language. (Pathos)
The peroration pulls together all the parts and themes of the speech. It may leave the audience thoughtful or excited. The objective is to shape the impression that the speaker wants to create both intellectually and emotionally.
3 What do you mean by Style?
Middle style: lies between ostentatious and unsophisticated.
Plain style: uses clarity and brevity and gives the impression of sincerity.
The audience dictates the use of style. The style must suit their mood, their expectations and the occasion. It should use phrases and sayings they are familiar with. Assumptions are acceptable if they help to advance the argument.
The sound of words and phrases is used to bring pleasure, attention and enhance memory. Rhyme, rhythm, and repetition add variety. Pauses can be used to good effect by giving the audience time to assimilate the speaker’s argument. Sound works on the mind and the emotions of the audience at the subconscious level. The sound of long sentences and short sentences can add to their meaning.
Figures of speech are groups of words. They are phrases and sentences that resonate with an audience. Each uses sounds or meanings to create an effect. They have been categorized and each can be used for a purpose. For example, alliteration can be used to give pleasure and be memorable while aposiopesis can stir pathos by its abruptness.
Tropes are individual words that can have more than one meaning. They can add variety to descriptions and maintain audience interest.
4 What do you mean by Memory?
Memory is important because if you cannot remember what to say, your audience will be highly disappointed. They have come to hear your speech.
By memory, Cicero did not mean you should memorize your text. ‘Memory’ means to be so familiar with your content that you can use short notes to jog your memory while speaking. Familiarity with the content enables you to sound fresh and spontaneous. You can maintain eye contact and talk ‘to’ your audience and not ‘at’ them.
Cicero favoured using images and locations to help you remember the points in your speech. Research found that memory is in the same part of the brain that deals with spatial awareness. Other speakers did not find location a help to memory and championed the use of mnemonics to boost recall.
There are advantages to having command of your speech. You can adapt your message depending on the mood of the audience. You can debate counterarguments as they arise. Your confidence will grow as you know which part of the speech you are presenting and which points will come next.
5 What do you mean by Delivery?
Delivery is the moment you stand before an audience and give the presentation you have prepared. Your text is spoken. You use words, tone, and rhythm to convey your message. Your preparation is now vocalized to an audience.
You use your voice to control your speech volume. You pause to indicate a change of thought. You talk quickly to generate enthusiasm. You slow down to create calm. Your gestures and body language confirm your confidence. You have prepared well. Your audience is convinced. You have succeeded.
Conclusion
The 5 canons of rhetoric were created to help you to identify the major stages needed to prepare any speech. Knowing the major stages gives us an overview of where everything fits in. The canons are the fixed pegs upon which you can hang the details of your research. The topics, propositions and arguments may change but the stages remain the same. The 5 canons of rhetoric are those stages.
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